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Summary Notes
(1) What makes up the Learning Environment?
- Many aspects make it up, ranging from the physical aspects, to students' emotions, cultural background, psychosocial dimension, school culture, school climate, etc
- Because it is made up of many facets, it is dynamic, complex, and subjected to many changes, especially with the prevalent use of technologies and changes brought about by them.
(2) Why Study The Learning Environment?
- Because pupils' and teachers' perceptions of the learning environments differ and if there is no congruence between the two, then, teachers may not be aware of issues that need to be addressed and this will be detrimental to pupils' learning processes
- To evaluate educational outcomes, eg: to see if there is a link between pupil's perceptions of the environment with their academic achievements, which has been widely researched on and findings support the fact that pupils are very influenced by their environment
- Evaluation of educational innovations eg: surveys can be administered to find out if using Online Learning enhances or hampers one's learning
(3) How to do a research on the Learning Environment?
- Pick a validated/ well-established intrument - which is usually a survey
- Administer the survey to respondents, make sure that the questions suit their level, are well spread out, are not too lengthy and contain a 4 pt Liker scale (some points to note when administering a survey)
- Collate the results using Excel, then transfer the raw data to SPSS
- Make sure that the transfer to the raw data is done carefully and properly
- Make use of the statistical functions in SPSS, eg: Cronbach's Alpha Reliabiltiy and Paired Sample T-tests to churn out results
- Save the figures properly as HTML files so that you can view them easily at home
- Pick out relevant figures to write your report - Especially on reliability figures, eg: items with reliability coefficient values of more than 0.7 are considered reliable, and look for significant levels that are below the preset, eg: 0.05, because these items reflect issues which need to be addressed
- Write your report using the basic layout given eg: 1) Abstract2) Introduction3) Literature Review 4) Rationale 5) Research Questions 6) Methodology - Sample, Procedures, Data Analysis (please put in tables and graph) 7) Findings and discussions 8) Conclusions - recommendations
Thursday, December 6, 2007
Wednesday, December 5, 2007
Reading Article: Leading the Band - The Role of the Instructor In Online Learning For Educators
Online learning is often highly regarded as a practical medium for adult learning because it offers anywhere, anytime instruction. Since the advent of the Internet and other ICTs, learning through such medium has been given a lot of attention and this has also spruced up much research in the assessment of online learning. This form of learning has also changed the traditional learning environment which we usually refer to traditional face-to face situations.
This article makes one reflect on the role played by the instructor in an online learning environment, because this role is multi-faceted and the teacher takes on the following roles:
1) Planner - the teacher organises the content materials and states clear expectations from the beginning (just like what a teacher does in a traditional classroom!)
2) Model - participants stressed the importance of shared learning and equal footing of student and instructor online, but they would also like the instructor to set a good example and adhere to formal protocol, such as replying to posts and comments on time and giving useful feedback.
3) Coach - the teacher is also expected to challenge, engage and question students in the virtual community, while giving students moral support too.
4) Facilitator - it was widely agreed upon that the teacher will take a long time to establish a climate of cooperation and understanding among respondents. It is very student-centered, and as a facilitator, most students felt that instructors must be well-trained in this mode, to faciliate online discussion, displaying good mastery of content knowledge, directs discussions well and gives equal opportunities to everyone to voice their comments.
5) Communicator - the teacher must have the ability to foster communication and collaboration with students, and be sensitive to signals/ cues which are not easily assessed due to a lack of face-to-face interaction
General Discussions And Verdict On Online Learning:
The online instructor's role is multi-faceted and he is no different from a typical classroom teacher. In fact, it takes a lot of mastery and skills to be an effective online instructor because of the many roles that he takes. One important aspect that I have to bear in mind is that if I want to embark on online teaching, I must make sure that discsussions, once launched, must be kept alive and going, in order to stimulate learning and discourse. Also, for an effective online environment to take place, one must bear in mind that it shares many parrallels to a traditional classroom setting - that people still value a safe, inclusive and comfortable environment where their views are valued and respected, despite the lack of face-to-face interactions, where peoples' actions are more easily scrutinised, and also, online learning offers a new channel for people with different levels of self-direction.
This article makes one reflect on the role played by the instructor in an online learning environment, because this role is multi-faceted and the teacher takes on the following roles:
1) Planner - the teacher organises the content materials and states clear expectations from the beginning (just like what a teacher does in a traditional classroom!)
2) Model - participants stressed the importance of shared learning and equal footing of student and instructor online, but they would also like the instructor to set a good example and adhere to formal protocol, such as replying to posts and comments on time and giving useful feedback.
3) Coach - the teacher is also expected to challenge, engage and question students in the virtual community, while giving students moral support too.
4) Facilitator - it was widely agreed upon that the teacher will take a long time to establish a climate of cooperation and understanding among respondents. It is very student-centered, and as a facilitator, most students felt that instructors must be well-trained in this mode, to faciliate online discussion, displaying good mastery of content knowledge, directs discussions well and gives equal opportunities to everyone to voice their comments.
5) Communicator - the teacher must have the ability to foster communication and collaboration with students, and be sensitive to signals/ cues which are not easily assessed due to a lack of face-to-face interaction
General Discussions And Verdict On Online Learning:
The online instructor's role is multi-faceted and he is no different from a typical classroom teacher. In fact, it takes a lot of mastery and skills to be an effective online instructor because of the many roles that he takes. One important aspect that I have to bear in mind is that if I want to embark on online teaching, I must make sure that discsussions, once launched, must be kept alive and going, in order to stimulate learning and discourse. Also, for an effective online environment to take place, one must bear in mind that it shares many parrallels to a traditional classroom setting - that people still value a safe, inclusive and comfortable environment where their views are valued and respected, despite the lack of face-to-face interactions, where peoples' actions are more easily scrutinised, and also, online learning offers a new channel for people with different levels of self-direction.
Part 2: Instruments for Assessing Learning Environments and Issues involved In Environment Research
Learning Points From Articles:
1) Classroom Environment Research: Progress and Possibilities - Jeffrey Dorman
2) Science Learning Environment: Assessment, Efffects and Determinants - Barry Fraser
3) Learning Environments Research: Yesterday, Today And Tomorrow - Barry Fraser
These points are a continuation from the previous post on 'brief background and major contributors..."
There are many established instruments used in learning envrionment and many have a long history and re-adapted in many studies.
1) Learning Environment Inventory - LEI
- developed in conjunction with the evaluation and research related to Harvard Project Physic
(Fraser, Anderson & Walberg, 1982)
2) Classroom Environment Scale - CES
- By Rudolf Moos at Standford University
- it grew out of a comprehensive program of research invloving perceptual measures of a variety of human environments that include universities, hospitals, corporations.
3) Individualised Classroom Envrionment Questionnaire (ICEQ)
- assesses dimensions that differentiate between individualised classrooms from conventional ones
- first published version consisted of 90 items, by Fraser
- initial development of this instrument was based on extensive interviewing of teachers & students, literature on individualised open and inquiry-based education
4) My Class Inventory (MCI)
- simpler form of the LEI to suit children's use, aged 8-12 years
- found to be quite useful with junior high school students too, and those with reading difficulties
- minimises fatigue - there's a reduction in scales, from LEI's initial 15 scales to 5 scales only
- LEI's 4 pt likert scale was reduced to a 2 point (Yes/No) response format
- Final version contains 38 items altogether, eg: "Children are always fighting with each other."
(refer to Fraser's readings for more information)
5) College and University Classroom Environment Inventory (CUCEI)
- developed for use in small classes, eg: up to 30 students
6) Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI)
- research originated in the Neatherlands, focuses on the nature and quality of interpersonal relationships between teachers and students
- based on a theoretical model of proximity (cooperation- opposition) and influence (dominance-submission), the QTI was developed to assess student perceptions of eight behaviour aspects
- each item had a 5 pt Likert scale, ranging from Never to Always
7) Science Laboratory Environment Inventory (SLEI)
- used to assess laboratory settings in science education
- has 5 scales, each with 7 items and the responses are - Almost Never, Seldom, Somtimes, Often and Very Often
8) Constructivist Learning Environmnent Survey (CLES)
- the constructivist view holds that meaningful learning is a cognitive process in which individuals make sense of the world in relation to the knowledge which they already have contructed, and this sense-making process invloves active negotiation and consensus building
(Refer to Fraser's reading for more details)
- the instrument was developed to help teachers and researchers assess how consisten the classroom environment is congruent with the constructivist epistemology
- results can help shape teachers' assumptions and reflect on their teaching practices
9) What Is Happening In This Class (WIHIC) Questionnaire
- combined modified versions of the most saliet scales from a wide range of exsiting questionnaires with additional scales that accomodate contemporary educational concerns (eg: equity and constructivism)
- consists of "Personal" form - used for assessing a students' personal perceptions of his role in the classroom and "Actual" form - used for assessing students' perceptions of the class as a whole)
- Original 90 item nine-scale version was refined by both statistical analysis of data from many high school students and extensive interviewing of students' views of their classroom environments, of which only 54 items were sieved out
- this instrument had been readapted and revised many times, and had been used cross-validated in many research studies
10) Other instruments had been developed by Fraser, Dorman and McRobbie, many of which were modifications of some of the above instruments to suit other learning environments
General Approaches to the assessment of learning environments
a) use trained observers to code events, usually in terms of explicit phenomena
b) use of student and teacher perceptions obtained through questionnaire administration
3) uses of ethographic data collection methods
Uses/ Purposes of Research in Learning Environments - Refer to examples given in the following areas in Fraser's reading, "Learning Environments Research: Yesterday, Today And Tomorrow." (The first two readings also offer similar reasons)
1) Associations between student outcomes and environments
2) Evaluation of educational innovations
3) Differences between student and teacher perceptions of actual and preferred environment
4) Determinants of classroom environment - classroom environment dimensions have been used as criterion variables in research aimed at identifying how the classroom environment varies with factors such as teacher personality, class size, grade level
5) Use of qualitative methods - combined with quantitative methods and to complement statistical findings
6) Cross-national studies - eg: Australian teachers were perceived to give more responsibilities and freedom to their students compared to Singaporean teachers, in a cross-national study of secondary science classes
Other learning points from article: Learning Environments Research- Yesterday, Today And Tomorrow
- Asian research in learning environments followed a very trajectory compared with Western research in the sense that there has been a strong emphasis on the use of validated and robust instruments that assess pupils' perceptions of their classroom learning environment
- Asian researchers have conducted many numerous impressive studies that have cross-validated the main contemporary classroom environment questionnaires
- But asian researchers had been less active in the development of new instruments
- More works should be done in the development of such instruments to capture the uniqueness and nuances of asian classroom environments
- Asian research most commonly centered on investigating aossications between students' outcomes and their classroom environment perceptions
- More research needs to be done on the practical benefit of assessing pupils' preferred and actual perceptions of the classroom environment
1) Classroom Environment Research: Progress and Possibilities - Jeffrey Dorman
2) Science Learning Environment: Assessment, Efffects and Determinants - Barry Fraser
3) Learning Environments Research: Yesterday, Today And Tomorrow - Barry Fraser
These points are a continuation from the previous post on 'brief background and major contributors..."
There are many established instruments used in learning envrionment and many have a long history and re-adapted in many studies.
1) Learning Environment Inventory - LEI
- developed in conjunction with the evaluation and research related to Harvard Project Physic
(Fraser, Anderson & Walberg, 1982)
2) Classroom Environment Scale - CES
- By Rudolf Moos at Standford University
- it grew out of a comprehensive program of research invloving perceptual measures of a variety of human environments that include universities, hospitals, corporations.
3) Individualised Classroom Envrionment Questionnaire (ICEQ)
- assesses dimensions that differentiate between individualised classrooms from conventional ones
- first published version consisted of 90 items, by Fraser
- initial development of this instrument was based on extensive interviewing of teachers & students, literature on individualised open and inquiry-based education
4) My Class Inventory (MCI)
- simpler form of the LEI to suit children's use, aged 8-12 years
- found to be quite useful with junior high school students too, and those with reading difficulties
- minimises fatigue - there's a reduction in scales, from LEI's initial 15 scales to 5 scales only
- LEI's 4 pt likert scale was reduced to a 2 point (Yes/No) response format
- Final version contains 38 items altogether, eg: "Children are always fighting with each other."
(refer to Fraser's readings for more information)
5) College and University Classroom Environment Inventory (CUCEI)
- developed for use in small classes, eg: up to 30 students
6) Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI)
- research originated in the Neatherlands, focuses on the nature and quality of interpersonal relationships between teachers and students
- based on a theoretical model of proximity (cooperation- opposition) and influence (dominance-submission), the QTI was developed to assess student perceptions of eight behaviour aspects
- each item had a 5 pt Likert scale, ranging from Never to Always
7) Science Laboratory Environment Inventory (SLEI)
- used to assess laboratory settings in science education
- has 5 scales, each with 7 items and the responses are - Almost Never, Seldom, Somtimes, Often and Very Often
8) Constructivist Learning Environmnent Survey (CLES)
- the constructivist view holds that meaningful learning is a cognitive process in which individuals make sense of the world in relation to the knowledge which they already have contructed, and this sense-making process invloves active negotiation and consensus building
(Refer to Fraser's reading for more details)
- the instrument was developed to help teachers and researchers assess how consisten the classroom environment is congruent with the constructivist epistemology
- results can help shape teachers' assumptions and reflect on their teaching practices
9) What Is Happening In This Class (WIHIC) Questionnaire
- combined modified versions of the most saliet scales from a wide range of exsiting questionnaires with additional scales that accomodate contemporary educational concerns (eg: equity and constructivism)
- consists of "Personal" form - used for assessing a students' personal perceptions of his role in the classroom and "Actual" form - used for assessing students' perceptions of the class as a whole)
- Original 90 item nine-scale version was refined by both statistical analysis of data from many high school students and extensive interviewing of students' views of their classroom environments, of which only 54 items were sieved out
- this instrument had been readapted and revised many times, and had been used cross-validated in many research studies
10) Other instruments had been developed by Fraser, Dorman and McRobbie, many of which were modifications of some of the above instruments to suit other learning environments
General Approaches to the assessment of learning environments
a) use trained observers to code events, usually in terms of explicit phenomena
b) use of student and teacher perceptions obtained through questionnaire administration
3) uses of ethographic data collection methods
Uses/ Purposes of Research in Learning Environments - Refer to examples given in the following areas in Fraser's reading, "Learning Environments Research: Yesterday, Today And Tomorrow." (The first two readings also offer similar reasons)
1) Associations between student outcomes and environments
2) Evaluation of educational innovations
3) Differences between student and teacher perceptions of actual and preferred environment
4) Determinants of classroom environment - classroom environment dimensions have been used as criterion variables in research aimed at identifying how the classroom environment varies with factors such as teacher personality, class size, grade level
5) Use of qualitative methods - combined with quantitative methods and to complement statistical findings
6) Cross-national studies - eg: Australian teachers were perceived to give more responsibilities and freedom to their students compared to Singaporean teachers, in a cross-national study of secondary science classes
Other learning points from article: Learning Environments Research- Yesterday, Today And Tomorrow
- Asian research in learning environments followed a very trajectory compared with Western research in the sense that there has been a strong emphasis on the use of validated and robust instruments that assess pupils' perceptions of their classroom learning environment
- Asian researchers have conducted many numerous impressive studies that have cross-validated the main contemporary classroom environment questionnaires
- But asian researchers had been less active in the development of new instruments
- More works should be done in the development of such instruments to capture the uniqueness and nuances of asian classroom environments
- Asian research most commonly centered on investigating aossications between students' outcomes and their classroom environment perceptions
- More research needs to be done on the practical benefit of assessing pupils' preferred and actual perceptions of the classroom environment
Session 5 - Our Research Project
Today's lesson was truly a hands-on one that invloved everybody. In the beginning of the lesson, we were asked to calculate the Cronbach's Alpha Reliability for each set of the 6 scales in the survey. It was an experience that I will never forget because the learning experience is really useful for myself. Actually, yesterday, my coursemate, Bel and I were already trying out the SPSS software and we had thought that we were doing the correct thing by calculating for all the items at once. But, it turned out that we were wrong of course, and we had to calculate in 6 different sets (according to how the items were categorised). After awhile, I felt that the taks became rather repetitive and I had the hang of it.
From a teacher- researcher's point of view, I feel that I have been given a comprehensive coverage on how to administer a survey, collate the data collected, analyse them using SPSS software (which is very new to me) to determine if the items in the questionnaire used are reliable and if there are any significant differences between students’ preferred and actual perceptions. After we had calculated all the figures, I felt that Dr Quek was being very informative in telling us how to interprete the analysis. She mentioned that the significant figures is to be set at 95% and from the results of the means generated, we had to address the scales if the significant level is less than 0.05. This means that there is a disparity between students' preferred and actual responses and hence, this means that we must come up with intervention measures to improve students' learning envionment.
One of the major highlights of today's lecture was that certain statistical concepts were explained to the class:
1) Cronbach Alpha Reliability
This measurement is to find out how reliable a questionnaire is. For an item to be reliable, a scale of at least 0.7 is considered good while a scale of 0.6 is rated as fairly good. A low reliability measurement could mean that respondents misinterpreted the sentences, or due to the phrasing of the sentences.
2) Paired Sample T-Test
First of all, we were told to calculate the means for the items. Next, we transferred the data to SPSS and we paired up the items. For example, we paired Pref_1 with Act_1, Pref_2 with Act_2, etc. Then, we had to check that all the decimal places are the same and followed the steps - click on 'analyse', followed by 'compare means', choose 'paired sample T-test, key in all the pairs and set the confidence level to 95%.
I feel that the main learning point for today is how to write a research paper. Below are the skeletal outline that Dr Quek gave which we had to follow when we write our group report.
1) Abstract
2) Introduction
3) Literature Review
4) Rationale
5) Research Questions
6) Methodology - Sample, Procedures, Data Analysis - please put in tables and graphs
7) Findings and discussions
8) Conclusions - recommendations
From a teacher- researcher's point of view, I feel that I have been given a comprehensive coverage on how to administer a survey, collate the data collected, analyse them using SPSS software (which is very new to me) to determine if the items in the questionnaire used are reliable and if there are any significant differences between students’ preferred and actual perceptions. After we had calculated all the figures, I felt that Dr Quek was being very informative in telling us how to interprete the analysis. She mentioned that the significant figures is to be set at 95% and from the results of the means generated, we had to address the scales if the significant level is less than 0.05. This means that there is a disparity between students' preferred and actual responses and hence, this means that we must come up with intervention measures to improve students' learning envionment.
One of the major highlights of today's lecture was that certain statistical concepts were explained to the class:
1) Cronbach Alpha Reliability
This measurement is to find out how reliable a questionnaire is. For an item to be reliable, a scale of at least 0.7 is considered good while a scale of 0.6 is rated as fairly good. A low reliability measurement could mean that respondents misinterpreted the sentences, or due to the phrasing of the sentences.
2) Paired Sample T-Test
First of all, we were told to calculate the means for the items. Next, we transferred the data to SPSS and we paired up the items. For example, we paired Pref_1 with Act_1, Pref_2 with Act_2, etc. Then, we had to check that all the decimal places are the same and followed the steps - click on 'analyse', followed by 'compare means', choose 'paired sample T-test, key in all the pairs and set the confidence level to 95%.
I feel that the main learning point for today is how to write a research paper. Below are the skeletal outline that Dr Quek gave which we had to follow when we write our group report.
1) Abstract
2) Introduction
3) Literature Review
4) Rationale
5) Research Questions
6) Methodology - Sample, Procedures, Data Analysis - please put in tables and graphs
7) Findings and discussions
8) Conclusions - recommendations
Part 1: Brief Background On History Of Learning Environment And Major Contributors
Relevant Articles:
1) Classroom Environment Research: Progress And Possibilities - by Jeffrey Dorman
2) Science Learning Environments: Assessment, Effects and Determinants - by Barry Fraser
These two articles give a very detailed overview on the history of the research on learning environments. In the first article by Dorman, he argues that it is important to study the learning environment because one cannot ignore the subtle effects that they have on students' learning, which had been extensively proven to influence academic performances. The learning environment, essentially a human environment in which many factors are at play, influence one another and because of its complex nature, many researchers have come up with validated instruments to measure and assess the different aspects which make up of it, using many surveys which had been subjected to rigourous validation and deemed fit for serious studies.
Historically, learning environment research is well anchored in the works of early psychologists. (Dorman, 2002) There are a number of important contributors to the study of the learning environment and some names will be given below.
1) Kurt Lewin's Field Theory - 1936
Main tenets of this theory:
- Behaviour is defined as a function of person and environment (that is, B-f{P, E}). This means that one’s behavior is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to the social situation in which one finds oneself. The concrete person in a concrete situation can represented mathematically.
- Behaviour is a function of the field that exists at the time the behaviour occurs, analysis begins with the situation as a whole from which are differentiated the component parts, and
- Kurt Lewin also looked to the power of underlying forces (needs) to determine behaviour and, hence, expressed ‘a preference for psychological as opposed to physical or physiological descriptions of the field’ (op. cit.).
Check out this website on Lewin's field theory: http://wilderdom.com/theory/FieldTheory.html
2) Henry Murray's Need- Press Theory - 1938
- Murray, together with some other researchers, extended Lewin's work to develop a need-press theory in which persons are conceptualised in terms of their psychosocial needs and the environment in terms of its press. (Dorman, 2002)
- this simply means that the environment (press) has the power to afffect a person's needs. Take for instance in a school context, the a teacher or a student has her own needs and the environment (press) can either suppress or provide such needs. This theory was later developed to measure the degree of congruence between the person-environment and student outcomes.
- Techincal terms:
a) Alpha press - the environment as observed by an external observer
b) Beta press - the environment as perceived by milieu inhabitants - this perspective exerts greater influence on behaviour because this is what is felt, interpreted and responded by the person. (refer to Dorman's reading)
* Stern, Stein and Bloom later extended these terms (Refer to Fraser's article)
(i) private beta press - the idiosyncratic view that each person has of the environment
(ii) consensual beta press - the shared view that members of a group hold about the environment.
These concepts are important terms in learning environment research. An external observer taking on the role of alpha press may be making highly objective observations, while the individual takes on beta press perspective in a classroom setting, is dependent on the subjective assessment of students and teachers. (Dorman, 2002)
3) Rudolf Moos' theoretical framework - 3 dimensions of human evnrionments (Dorman, 2002)
(i) Relationship - the nature and intensity of personal relationships within the environment
Egs of aspects of learning environment: Helpfulness, Participation, Responsibility
(ii) Personal Development - basic directions along which personal growth and self-enhancement tend to occur
Egs of aspects of learning environment: Stimulation, achievement, efficacy
(iii) System Maintenance and Sytem Change - the extent to which the environment is orderly, clear in expectations, maintains control and is responsive to change
Egs of aspects of learning evironment: Influence, Safety, control
4) Walberg's involvement in the Harvar Project Physics (HPP) - 1960s
- HPP was an experimentally based physics course for secondary school students in the United States in the 1960s. The main rational was to find out if the new approach to the teaching and learning of physics in American classrooms made a difference to classroom climate.
- Walberg's research used students' data of perceptions collected by questionnaire and these data were collected based on observations in classrooms, which focused on summary judgments based on months of immersion in classroom taught by HPP or conventional knowledge-transmission methods. (Dorman, 2002)
- Walberg's works are very important because he showed that students are capable of making valid summary judgments about their classrooms and they could be used in learning environment research.
- Thus, from the 1970s onwards, research on the learning environments centered on the conceptualisation and assessment of classroom environments.
1) Classroom Environment Research: Progress And Possibilities - by Jeffrey Dorman
2) Science Learning Environments: Assessment, Effects and Determinants - by Barry Fraser
These two articles give a very detailed overview on the history of the research on learning environments. In the first article by Dorman, he argues that it is important to study the learning environment because one cannot ignore the subtle effects that they have on students' learning, which had been extensively proven to influence academic performances. The learning environment, essentially a human environment in which many factors are at play, influence one another and because of its complex nature, many researchers have come up with validated instruments to measure and assess the different aspects which make up of it, using many surveys which had been subjected to rigourous validation and deemed fit for serious studies.
Historically, learning environment research is well anchored in the works of early psychologists. (Dorman, 2002) There are a number of important contributors to the study of the learning environment and some names will be given below.
1) Kurt Lewin's Field Theory - 1936
Main tenets of this theory:
- Behaviour is defined as a function of person and environment (that is, B-f{P, E}). This means that one’s behavior is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to the social situation in which one finds oneself. The concrete person in a concrete situation can represented mathematically.
- Behaviour is a function of the field that exists at the time the behaviour occurs, analysis begins with the situation as a whole from which are differentiated the component parts, and
- Kurt Lewin also looked to the power of underlying forces (needs) to determine behaviour and, hence, expressed ‘a preference for psychological as opposed to physical or physiological descriptions of the field’ (op. cit.).
Check out this website on Lewin's field theory: http://wilderdom.com/theory/FieldTheory.html
2) Henry Murray's Need- Press Theory - 1938
- Murray, together with some other researchers, extended Lewin's work to develop a need-press theory in which persons are conceptualised in terms of their psychosocial needs and the environment in terms of its press. (Dorman, 2002)
- this simply means that the environment (press) has the power to afffect a person's needs. Take for instance in a school context, the a teacher or a student has her own needs and the environment (press) can either suppress or provide such needs. This theory was later developed to measure the degree of congruence between the person-environment and student outcomes.
- Techincal terms:
a) Alpha press - the environment as observed by an external observer
b) Beta press - the environment as perceived by milieu inhabitants - this perspective exerts greater influence on behaviour because this is what is felt, interpreted and responded by the person. (refer to Dorman's reading)
* Stern, Stein and Bloom later extended these terms (Refer to Fraser's article)
(i) private beta press - the idiosyncratic view that each person has of the environment
(ii) consensual beta press - the shared view that members of a group hold about the environment.
These concepts are important terms in learning environment research. An external observer taking on the role of alpha press may be making highly objective observations, while the individual takes on beta press perspective in a classroom setting, is dependent on the subjective assessment of students and teachers. (Dorman, 2002)
3) Rudolf Moos' theoretical framework - 3 dimensions of human evnrionments (Dorman, 2002)
(i) Relationship - the nature and intensity of personal relationships within the environment
Egs of aspects of learning environment: Helpfulness, Participation, Responsibility
(ii) Personal Development - basic directions along which personal growth and self-enhancement tend to occur
Egs of aspects of learning environment: Stimulation, achievement, efficacy
(iii) System Maintenance and Sytem Change - the extent to which the environment is orderly, clear in expectations, maintains control and is responsive to change
Egs of aspects of learning evironment: Influence, Safety, control
4) Walberg's involvement in the Harvar Project Physics (HPP) - 1960s
- HPP was an experimentally based physics course for secondary school students in the United States in the 1960s. The main rational was to find out if the new approach to the teaching and learning of physics in American classrooms made a difference to classroom climate.
- Walberg's research used students' data of perceptions collected by questionnaire and these data were collected based on observations in classrooms, which focused on summary judgments based on months of immersion in classroom taught by HPP or conventional knowledge-transmission methods. (Dorman, 2002)
- Walberg's works are very important because he showed that students are capable of making valid summary judgments about their classrooms and they could be used in learning environment research.
- Thus, from the 1970s onwards, research on the learning environments centered on the conceptualisation and assessment of classroom environments.
Tuesday, December 4, 2007
Final Thoughts On Session 4 - Data Collection In Class & First Attempt At Using SPSS
The second part of today's lecture was simply awesome - because my group members worked together cohesively and devised some time saving strategies to complete the tasks assigned to us. First of all, when we received the template given to us, all the five of us quickly designated certain categories among ourselves and made the changes accordingly after keying in our survey results. I was surprised that my group members and I were very engaged indeed throughout the process of putting together everything and sharing with the rest of the class. I felt that there was truly cooperation and learning among my coursemates, and there were some coursemates who were ready to lend a helping hand to others who were having difficulties. I remember that at the beginning stage, there was some confusion over the customisation of the template but soon, that was quite quickly resolved and everyone got down to do their part. Very soon, my group was ready to combine the results using the spreadsheet in Google and then exporting it to Excel. When we finally compelled all the raw data, we were rather eager to transfer them to SPSS.
It was during this time that we discovered a special function - 'Transpose', which allowed us to convert horizontal rows to vertical rows in Excel, and by doing so, this enabled us to cut and paste the information from Excel to SPSS directly, as the rows in SPSS are arranged vertically, unlike the ones in Excel. We were truly elated when we were able to do that and we calculated the figures by following the steps Dr Quek showed us earlier. However, it turned out that there seemed to be some 'errors' in the results generated, but some figures were shown though, and probably, the 'errors' shown were due to the fact that we didn't have the minimum sample size of 30 respondents. Anyway, our data is subjected to change as some of our coursemates are coming back and we can compute their inputs by then. This lesson was really a fruitful learning experience as I was made aware of the procedure that I will have to follow if I were to carry out action research next time.
It was during this time that we discovered a special function - 'Transpose', which allowed us to convert horizontal rows to vertical rows in Excel, and by doing so, this enabled us to cut and paste the information from Excel to SPSS directly, as the rows in SPSS are arranged vertically, unlike the ones in Excel. We were truly elated when we were able to do that and we calculated the figures by following the steps Dr Quek showed us earlier. However, it turned out that there seemed to be some 'errors' in the results generated, but some figures were shown though, and probably, the 'errors' shown were due to the fact that we didn't have the minimum sample size of 30 respondents. Anyway, our data is subjected to change as some of our coursemates are coming back and we can compute their inputs by then. This lesson was really a fruitful learning experience as I was made aware of the procedure that I will have to follow if I were to carry out action research next time.
Advantages Of Online Learning & Cronbach's Alpha Reliability
Dr Quek shared with us this website on online learning - http://eduweb.nie.edu.sg/onlinelearning/resources.html
Website on Cronbach's Alpha Reliability -
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronbach%27s_alpha
Website on Cronbach's Alpha Reliability -
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronbach%27s_alpha
Lecture Notes For Session 4 - Assessing Learning Environment II
Brief Recap:
In the beginning of this module, we were given a big picture of what the learning environment is, and we were introduced to the wide array of different instruments for assessing the learning environment, which are widely used in quantitative research. But, there is also qualtitative research, which can serve to complement the quantitative results of a research too.
What defines the school learning environment?
Many aspects make up the learning environment and we can categorise them according to the following groups:
1) Students: students' learning styles and needs, students' attitudes, student to student relationships
2) Teachers: pedagogies, teachers' attitudes to bring out the best in every child, interaction with pupils (rapport)
3) School: school culture/climate, physical aspects, shared vision among staff, discipline, leadership, support staff, funds, security, school leaders' vision, discipline, leadership,
4) Outside influences: parents' support (or lack of it),
An instruement that was explained in detail today was the SLCEQ - School Level Environment Questionnaire (Quantitative research). A sample of this survey can be found on Appendix 2 in the course pack. These questions are spread out in the survey to prevent respondents' detection of 'simialr' questions and to expose them to some kind of 'variety' so that they do not get bored with similar questions. This sort of arrangement also prevents inaccurate results due to boredom/ fatigue/ detection.
In the beginning of this module, we were given a big picture of what the learning environment is, and we were introduced to the wide array of different instruments for assessing the learning environment, which are widely used in quantitative research. But, there is also qualtitative research, which can serve to complement the quantitative results of a research too.
What defines the school learning environment?
Many aspects make up the learning environment and we can categorise them according to the following groups:
1) Students: students' learning styles and needs, students' attitudes, student to student relationships
2) Teachers: pedagogies, teachers' attitudes to bring out the best in every child, interaction with pupils (rapport)
3) School: school culture/climate, physical aspects, shared vision among staff, discipline, leadership, support staff, funds, security, school leaders' vision, discipline, leadership,
4) Outside influences: parents' support (or lack of it),
An instruement that was explained in detail today was the SLCEQ - School Level Environment Questionnaire (Quantitative research). A sample of this survey can be found on Appendix 2 in the course pack. These questions are spread out in the survey to prevent respondents' detection of 'simialr' questions and to expose them to some kind of 'variety' so that they do not get bored with similar questions. This sort of arrangement also prevents inaccurate results due to boredom/ fatigue/ detection.
The questions are varied and can be grouped according to different categories (see below for classification). We were also using Moos's schema - Personal Development, Relationship, System Change/ Maintenance to label the categories below. (see right hand side)
1) Student support
2) Affiliation - sense of belonging
3) Professional interest - eg: Teachers frequently discuss teaching methods and strategies with each other
4) Achievement orientation
5) Staff freedom - To what extent do teachers take part in voicing concerns?
6) Participatory decision making - relates to school matters, policies
7) Innovation
8) Resource adequacy
9) Work pressure
There are some factors to consider when administering a survey to respondents, especially pupils. They are:
1) Consider the attention span of the pupils - Approximately 25 Qns for sec school pupils
2) Phrase the sentences positively, arrange from 'Positive' scale to 'Negative' scale - "Strongly Agree" to "Strongly Disagree"
3) Assign a 4 pt Liker Scale - omit 'Not Sure' because respondents have the tendency to choose that.
4) Consider pupils' command of the language - Do not use too difficult words which are beyond their level of understanding
Session 1 Article: The Desing Of Learning Environments
Brief notes:
Basically, there are 4 main types of learning environments:
1) Learner- centered
- refers to environments that pay careful attention to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting.
- learner -centered instructions also include a sensitivity to the cultural practices of students and the effect of those practices on classroom setting
- learner -centered envrionments include teachers who are aware that learners construct their own meanings, beginning with the beliefs, understandings and cultural practices they bring to the classroom.
- teachers respect and understand learners' prior experiences and understandings, which serve as a foundation to build new understandings
2) Knowledge - centered
- knowledge -centered evnrionments ensure that students become knowledgeable
- they complement learner- centered environment, by emphasising on the content, while taking care of the other aspects of the learner, eg: emotional, psychosocil, mental, cultural, etc
- this type of learning also focuses on the kinds of information and activities that help students develop an understanding of disciplines
- emphasises on sense-making - on helping students become metacognitive by experiencing new information to make sense and asking for clarifications when it doesn't
-'Progressive formalisation' - the concept that that students bring their own ideas & other forms of knowledge to school, and teachers help them to see how these idesa can be transformed and formalised through a gradual and structured process (learning), so that they acquire the concepts and procedures of a discipline
- usually, educators who ascribe to this environment ask important questions on what to teach, and how to foster an integrated understanding of a discipline
3) Assessment - centered
- the key principles of assessment are that they should provide opportunities for feedback and revision and what is assessed must be congruent with one's learning goals
- formative assessment: invloves the use of assessments as sources of information to improve teaching and learning
- summative assessment: invloves measuring what students have learned at the end of some set of learning activities, eg: teachers' comments on drafts of writing exercises
4) Community - centered
- emerged as a result of new developments in the science of learning, eg: online learning
- the term is used to refer to several apects of community, including the classroom, the school, the degree to which students and teachers feel connected to the larger community of homes, business, states , etc
Basically, there are 4 main types of learning environments:
1) Learner- centered
- refers to environments that pay careful attention to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting.
- learner -centered instructions also include a sensitivity to the cultural practices of students and the effect of those practices on classroom setting
- learner -centered envrionments include teachers who are aware that learners construct their own meanings, beginning with the beliefs, understandings and cultural practices they bring to the classroom.
- teachers respect and understand learners' prior experiences and understandings, which serve as a foundation to build new understandings
2) Knowledge - centered
- knowledge -centered evnrionments ensure that students become knowledgeable
- they complement learner- centered environment, by emphasising on the content, while taking care of the other aspects of the learner, eg: emotional, psychosocil, mental, cultural, etc
- this type of learning also focuses on the kinds of information and activities that help students develop an understanding of disciplines
- emphasises on sense-making - on helping students become metacognitive by experiencing new information to make sense and asking for clarifications when it doesn't
-'Progressive formalisation' - the concept that that students bring their own ideas & other forms of knowledge to school, and teachers help them to see how these idesa can be transformed and formalised through a gradual and structured process (learning), so that they acquire the concepts and procedures of a discipline
- usually, educators who ascribe to this environment ask important questions on what to teach, and how to foster an integrated understanding of a discipline
3) Assessment - centered
- the key principles of assessment are that they should provide opportunities for feedback and revision and what is assessed must be congruent with one's learning goals
- formative assessment: invloves the use of assessments as sources of information to improve teaching and learning
- summative assessment: invloves measuring what students have learned at the end of some set of learning activities, eg: teachers' comments on drafts of writing exercises
4) Community - centered
- emerged as a result of new developments in the science of learning, eg: online learning
- the term is used to refer to several apects of community, including the classroom, the school, the degree to which students and teachers feel connected to the larger community of homes, business, states , etc
Monday, December 3, 2007
Takeaways For Session 3 - Lecture By Dr Quek & Presentations By Coursemates
Today's lesson was informative and insightful on 2 levels - that we had been given a good overview of two major authors in the field of Learning Environment, Murray and Levin and their contributions to the study of learning environments. My own knowledge of learning environment was later expanded by the interesting findings shared by my coursemates. Each group actually specialised in finding out more about an author's contributions to share with the rest of the class. It was simply amazing, to be sitting here listening to different perspectives and taking in new informative - this mode of sharing and reflecting, looking at other coursemates' blogs simply saves much time in having to surf for information on our own.
Such was my personal learning experience for today, which was certainly enriching in a sense. Also, I have been made more aware of the importance of learning about major contributors' works in this area because their research has been firmly grounded and carefully carried out for the benefit of educators and to serve as a platform for future research on learning environment studies to be carried out.
Of course, certain concepts such as what exactly make up the learning environment, the range of different surveys and instruments used have been reiterated again, and I believe this serves as a reminder that in order to have a comprehensive discussion/ research on the learning environment, we can't afford to miss any of the facets that make it up, because the concept of the learning environment is simply too encompassing and dynamic. Or perhaps, more importantly, each facet plays a part - whether direct or subtle, to pupils' outcomes - in terms of academic, social well-being, emotional aspects, etc, and we can't afford to be ignorant in any aspect.
Brief notes on lecture:
There was a brief recap on what makes up the learning environment at the beginning of the lecture - students' needs, perceptions of environment, school culture, school climate, human behaviour, school environment, classroom environment, conducive envrionment, psychosocial, gender differences, assessment, attitude, cognitive development and community. Against this myraid background, which makes up many dimensions of the learning evnrionment, there are many aspects to assess, and these are grouped into 3 main groups - physical, students and social. One of the major features of the lecture was the detailed explanation on the diagram on the inter-relationship between Lewinian's formula and Murray's needs-press formula. At this point, some techinical terms were introduced - alpha press (a term used to describe the environment as assessed by a detached observer) & beta press (a term used to describe the environment as perceived by mileu habitants)
There were some other interesting facts that Dr Quek mentioned during the lecture about doing research. For instance, the sample size for a quantitative research must be 30 (as a rule of thumb) while the sample size for qualitative research, the sample size is just 1. It is also more useful to utilise a 4 pt Likert's scale, compared to a 5 pt Liker's scale as people tend to choose the option 'not sure', thus giving results which are not very meaningful. Other useful information that Dr Quek mentioned included - taking into account of the cultural environment when we administer the tools and knowing the guidelines and principles behind the instruments before we apply them.
Such was my personal learning experience for today, which was certainly enriching in a sense. Also, I have been made more aware of the importance of learning about major contributors' works in this area because their research has been firmly grounded and carefully carried out for the benefit of educators and to serve as a platform for future research on learning environment studies to be carried out.
Of course, certain concepts such as what exactly make up the learning environment, the range of different surveys and instruments used have been reiterated again, and I believe this serves as a reminder that in order to have a comprehensive discussion/ research on the learning environment, we can't afford to miss any of the facets that make it up, because the concept of the learning environment is simply too encompassing and dynamic. Or perhaps, more importantly, each facet plays a part - whether direct or subtle, to pupils' outcomes - in terms of academic, social well-being, emotional aspects, etc, and we can't afford to be ignorant in any aspect.
Brief notes on lecture:
There was a brief recap on what makes up the learning environment at the beginning of the lecture - students' needs, perceptions of environment, school culture, school climate, human behaviour, school environment, classroom environment, conducive envrionment, psychosocial, gender differences, assessment, attitude, cognitive development and community. Against this myraid background, which makes up many dimensions of the learning evnrionment, there are many aspects to assess, and these are grouped into 3 main groups - physical, students and social. One of the major features of the lecture was the detailed explanation on the diagram on the inter-relationship between Lewinian's formula and Murray's needs-press formula. At this point, some techinical terms were introduced - alpha press (a term used to describe the environment as assessed by a detached observer) & beta press (a term used to describe the environment as perceived by mileu habitants)
There were some other interesting facts that Dr Quek mentioned during the lecture about doing research. For instance, the sample size for a quantitative research must be 30 (as a rule of thumb) while the sample size for qualitative research, the sample size is just 1. It is also more useful to utilise a 4 pt Likert's scale, compared to a 5 pt Liker's scale as people tend to choose the option 'not sure', thus giving results which are not very meaningful. Other useful information that Dr Quek mentioned included - taking into account of the cultural environment when we administer the tools and knowing the guidelines and principles behind the instruments before we apply them.
Timothy Leary's Interpersonal Diagnosis Personality
Useful websites on Timothy Leary
Biography on Timothy Leary
http://www.timothyleary.us/index.html
http://www.answers.com/topic/timothy-leary?cat=entertainment
http://www.erowid.org/culture/characters/leary_timothy/
Quotable Quotes by Timothy Leary
http://thinkexist.com/quotes/timothy_leary/
His instruments:
http://www.ntlf.com/html/lib/suppmat/74leary.htm
http://www.oneminutegallery.com/leary_chart/index.html
An Article On The Diagram Above:
http://www.jstor.org/view/00018392/di995381/99p01392/0
Biography on Timothy Leary
http://www.timothyleary.us/index.html
http://www.answers.com/topic/timothy-leary?cat=entertainment
http://www.erowid.org/culture/characters/leary_timothy/
Quotable Quotes by Timothy Leary
http://thinkexist.com/quotes/timothy_leary/
His instruments:
http://www.ntlf.com/html/lib/suppmat/74leary.htm
http://www.oneminutegallery.com/leary_chart/index.html
An Article On The Diagram Above:
http://www.jstor.org/view/00018392/di995381/99p01392/0
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